托福阅读背景材料汇总
大家在备考托福的阅读时会去积累一些背景资料，好帮助我们对此类题型有一定的了解，下面小编给大家带来托福阅读背景材料汇总，希望喜欢。
托福阅读背景材料:距离土星第七远的土星卫星
Excitement Builds for the Possibility of Life on Enceladus
Scientists tackle the question of how to search for life on Saturn’s sixth-largest moon
By Annie Sneed on June 28, 2016
Saturn's icy moon Enceladus is thought to host a liquid ocean beneath its frozen surface that could be hospitable to life. Credit: NASA
Saturn’s frozen moon Enceladus is a tantalizing world—many scientists are increasingly convinced it may be the best place in our solar system to search for life. NASA’s Cassini spacecraft, currently orbiting Saturn, has made intriguing observations of icy jets spewing from a suspected underground liquid ocean on the mysterious world that might be hospitable to alien life.
Cassini’s tour is due to wind down in 2017, and scientists badly want to send a dedicated mission to Enceladus to look for signs of life. In fact, some have already started seriously thinking about exactly how they might do this—including planetary scientist Carolyn Porco, who is the imaging team leader for Cassini. Earlier this month, she gathered a group of researchers including oceanographers, organic chemists and astrobiologists at the University of California, Berkeley, to strategize how to search for extraterrestrials on Enceladus—which, according to Porco, “is a total bitch of a problem to solve.”
Although Enceladus is small in size and shrouded in a thick shell of ice, it appears to be a habitable world: It has a source of energy from friction created by its orbit around Saturn, organic compounds that are building blocks for life and a liquid water ocean underneath all that ice. But just because Enceladus may be hospitable to life does not mean life exists there; it will take much more work to definitively prove it. At the Berkeley meeting, scientists laid out the data Cassini has collected for Enceladus—they discussed analyses of its geysers, measurements of its ice shell, ideas on what its ocean chemistry might be like, and more. Yet even with all the newest data and models scientists have, they are not even close to detecting organisms on Enceladus—hence the need for a space mission.
Finding life there would be a profound revelation that we are not alone in the cosmos. Furthermore, the discovery of organisms—or the lack thereof—could answer the subtler mystery of how life started on Earth. Researchers at the meeting presented two major opposing theories about how life here originated (in the ocean versus on land), and the group discussed how exploring Enceladus would inform this debate. “It would be a test of one of the ideas about the origin of life,” Porco says—specifically, the proposition that Earth’s species sprang in the sea. For example, if organisms exist in Enceladus’s ocean and presumably arose there, it would support the theory that life began on Earth in hydrothermal vents (hot, nutrient-rich, deep-sea vents on the ocean floor) rather than in patches of water on land.
托福阅读背景材料：甲烷水合物
Gas Hydrate
Gas Hydrate又称甲烷水合物(Methane Hydrate)系水分子与甲烷于低温高压(0℃，26大气压或10℃，76大气压下)形成类似冰状物质，在常温常压下即分解成水与甲烷，Gas Hydrate在水深数百公尺的大陆边缘地区存在如太平洋海域之大陆边缘，大西洋的大陆斜坡，南极大陆周边海域，Kvenvoden 1996年估计Gas Hydrate总储量为1 x 1016(m)3，如能够开采将成为重要之能源，因为甲烷为温室效应气体，故其与全球气候之变化将为海突候之变化将为海洋钻探研究之重点。Gas Hydrate之存在与海底之稳定性亦有密切之关系。
什么是甲烷水合物
「可燃烧的冰块」，这是许多人在介绍甲烷水合物时很喜欢引用的标题。在实验中人工合成的甲烷水合物就像一块不透明的冰块般纯白、洁净，在室温下一点火，它就自我燃烧起来(图一)。严格说来，甲烷水合物指的是甲烷气体分子在高压及低温的状态下，被呈笼状晶结架构的水分子所包合，而形成一种类似冰晶的化合物。这种气体分子和水分子的结合并不依靠化学的键结，纯粹是气体分子被包裹在水分子的笼状架构空隙中，与一般化学反应所产生的水合物性质并不相同。有的学者因而认为应称其为「甲烷气水包合物」(methane clathrate)，以别于一般以化学键方式结合的水合物。另外，大自然中与水分子结成笼状包合物的气体分子并不限于甲烷，乙烷、丙烷等烷氢类气体，甚至二氧化碳、氮气等常见气体，在适当的高压低温条件下，均会与水分子结合成气水包合物。事实上，这类气水包合物的英文名称为「gas hydrate」，直译应为「天然气水合物」或「瓦斯水合物」。由于自然界中的天然气水合物其气体成份以甲烷为主(超过90%)，因此一般人常把气水包合物称为「甲烷水合物」。本文随俗，用「甲烷水合物」代表学理上较严谨的「天然气气水包合物」一词。
托福阅读背景材料：纳米材料及其应用
About 纳米材料及其应用
纳米技术在生物工程上的应用
众所周知，分子是保持物质化学性质不变的最小单位。生物分子是很好的信息处理材料，每一个生物大分子本身就是一个微型处理器，分子在运动过程中以可预测方式进行状态变化，其原理类似于计算机的逻辑开关，利用该特性并结合纳米技术，可以此来设计量子计算机。美国南加州大学的Adelman博士等应用基于DNA分子计算技术的生物实验方法，有效地解决了目前计算机无法解决的问题—“哈密顿路径问题”，使人们对生物材料的信息处理功能和生物分子的计算技术有了进一步的认识。
虽然分子计算机目前只是处于理想阶段，但科学家已经考虑应用几种生物分子制造计算机的组件，其中细菌视紫红质最具前景。该生物材料具有特异的热、光、化学物理特性和很好的稳定性，并且，其奇特的光学循环特性可用于储存信息，从而起到代替当今计算机信息处理和信息存储的作用。在整个光循环过程中，细菌视紫红质经历几种不同的中间体过程，伴随相应的物质结构变化。Birge等研究了细菌视紫红质分子潜在的并行处理机制和用作三维存储器的潜能。通过调谐激光束，将信息并行地写入细菌视紫红质立方体，并从立方体中读取信息，并且细菌视紫红质的三维存储器可提供比二维光学存储器大得多的存储空间。
到目前为止，还没有出现商品化的分子计算机组件。科学家们认为：要想提高集成度，制造微型计算机，关键在于寻找具有开关功能的微型器件。美国锡拉丘兹大学已经利用细菌视紫红质蛋白质制作出了光导“与”门，利用发光门制成蛋白质存储器。此外，他们还利用细菌视紫红质蛋白质研制模拟人脑联想能力的中心网络和联想式存储装置。
纳米计算机的问世，将会使当今的信息时代发生质的飞跃。它将突破传统极限，使单位体积物质的储存和信息处理的能力提高上百万倍，从而实现电子学上的又一次革命。
有关纳米技术
华人科学家：美国纳米技术应用研究四大热点
正在美国从事纳米技术研究的华人青年科学家崔屹博士17日接受新华社记者采访时表示，美国纳米技术的应用研究目前正在半导体芯片、癌症诊断、光学新材料和生物分子追踪等四大热点领域快速发展，其中在芯片和癌症诊断领域的应用可望在10年内出现划时代的突破。
崔屹说，在癌症研究领域，利用纳米技术制成的传感器可望使各种癌症的早期诊断成为现实。目前，崔屹和他的同事已经在实验室环境下实现了对前列腺癌、直肠癌等多种癌症的早期诊断。纳米传感器灵敏度很高，在进行血液检测时，当传感器中预置的某种癌细胞抗体遇到相应的抗原时，传感器中的电流会发生变化，通过这种电流变化可以判断血液中癌细胞的种类和浓度。这一研究成果可望于近期发表在美国《科学》杂志上。崔屹指出，目前越来越多的风险投资正在涌入这一领域，但这一技术在实用中还有一些技术难题需要解决。他估计，今后可能会有多种纳米传感器集成在一起被置入人体，以用来早期检测各种疾病。
在半导体芯片领域，如何让芯片体积更小、速度更快是科学界一直研究的课题。目前用于芯片制造的光刻技术已经接近于发展极限，要想把更多的晶体管集成到一块芯片上已经越来越难。目前，美国纳米技术专家们试图把纳米级的半导体材料做成晶体管，从而可以让一块芯片上容纳更多的晶体管。这种芯片的运算速度可望比传统的硅芯片提高上千倍。这一研究方向在2001年取得基础性研究突破后，目前在应用研究中越来越热。据崔屹估计，这一技术可望在10年后达到实用化。
此外，纳米技术在光学材料和生物分子追踪两个领域的应用也是研究热门。在光学材料研究领域，科学家们试图改变某些半导体材料的分子结构，用来生产特定的光学器件。比如，一些科学家试图让某种半导体材料内部具有纳米级的线状结构，这种材料用于显示器制造领域可以大大提高显示器的清晰度和颜色逼真度。而在生物分子追踪领域，科学家把某种纳米颗粒“粘”在生物分子上，然后利用纳米颗粒的发光特性研究生物分子的行踪。这对研究艾滋病病毒等在人体内的活动过程十分有益。
崔屹说，美国在纳米应用研究领域中享有资金和人才优势，一直走在世界前列，但距离纳米技术实用化仍有一段路要走。与美国相比，其他国家则主要处于纳米技术的基础研究阶段。
现年27岁的崔屹毕业于中国科技大学，后在哈佛大学获纳米应用专业博士，目前在加州大学伯克利分校从事研究工作。过去几年，崔屹在《自然》和《科学》等权威杂志上发表多篇研究论文，同时还是2003年美国“米勒”杰出青年科学家奖和2001年美国材料研究学会金奖得主。
托福阅读背景材料：p53的抗癌作用
What is p53 ?
After the identification of the p53 protein and the subsequent cloning of p53 genes from several species, early observations suggested that p53 may function as an oncogene, because overexpression of p53 appeared to cause oncogenic transformation of cells. In the late 1980s, however, several critical discoveries defined the normal function of p53 to be anti-oncogenic. Wild-type p53 genes, when introduced into cells, were found to be growth suppressive. The screening of DNA from colon cancer patients revealed that p53 mutations occur with unusually high frequency in tumor tissue, an observation that was extended to most of the other major forms of human cancer. Indeed, members of Li-Fraumeni cancer-prone families were shown to carry germ-line p53 mutations. The importance of these observations was underscored by the finding that mice that are homozygous null for p53, although developmentally competent, are highly predisposed to tumors.
The functional character of the p53 protein was determined by experiments showing that p53 contains a strong transcriptional activation domain within its amino terminus and that it is a tetrameric, sequence-specific DNA-biding protein with a defined cognate binding site containing two copies of the 10-mer (5'-RRRCA/TT/AGYYY-3'). Although the p53 protein acts as a transcriptional activator of genes containing p53-binding sites, it is also capable of strongly inhibiting transcription from many genes lacking p53-binding sites. Several oncogenic DNA viruses express viral gene products that associate with and inhibit the trans-activation function of p53, notably SV40 large T antigen, the adenovirus E1B 55-kD protein, and the E6 protein of oncogenic forms of human papillomavirus (HPV E6). In cells, p53 can associate with a 90-kD protein, identified as the product of the mdm-2 oncogene, which is amplified in some types of tumors. When bound to mdm-2, p53 can no longer function as an activator of transcription.
p53 plays multiple roles in cells. Expression of high levels of wild-type (but not mutant) p53 has two outcomes: cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. The observation that DNA-damaging agents induce levels of p53 in cells led to the definition of p53 as a checkpoint factor, akin, perhaps, to the product of the fad9 gene in yeast. While dispensable for viability, in response to genotoxic stress, p53 acts as an "emergency brake" inducing either arrest or apoptosis, protecting the genome from accumulating excess mutations. Consistent with this notion, cells lacking p53 were shown to be genetically unstable and thus more prone to tumors.
